🏢 Real estate — ọrụ ụlọ ọfịs Ụdị dị ndụ

Ntọala — ụdị dị n'azụ ọnụọgụ

Mmekọrịta ọ bụla simulator na-eji, na isi mmalite ya. Ihe na-agbanwe agbanwe akara dị ka echiche bụ nhazi ngosi.

Ụlọ ahụ dị ka obere netwọk okpomọkụ: ikuku n'ime ụlọ na elu dị n'ime enweghị nchekwa, ọkpụkpụ nkume nwere ya. Okpomọkụ na-asọ site na njikọ ọ bụla n'oke ọdịiche okpomọkụ.

air: H_ve(θo − θa) + H_is(θs − θa) + Φ_ia + Φ_HC = 0; surface: H_is(θa − θs) + H_w(θo − θs) + H_ms(θm − θs) + Φ_st = 0; mass: C_m·dθm/dt = H_ms(θs − θm) + H_em(θo − θm) + Φ_m[1][2]

Ụkpụrụ ọkọlọtọ maka ụlọ dị arọ: ọkpụkpụ ụlọ ahụ na-echekwa 260 kJ maka kelvin ọ bụla n'ọnụ ọgụgụ m² ala ọ bụla ma jikọtara ya nke ọma na elu ụlọ ahụ. Ọkara nke okpomọkụ dị n'ime na-abanye ozugbo n'ikuku, ndị ọzọ na anyanwụ na-adaba n'elu na n'ọkpụkpụ.

C_m = 260 000·A_f J/K, A_m = 3.0·A_f, A_tot = 4.5·A_f, H_is = 3.45·A_tot, H_ms = 9.1·A_m (W/K); Φ_ia = 0.5·Φ_int, Φ_m = (A_m/A_tot)(0.5·Φ_int + Φ_sol)[1][2]

Mita cubic ọ bụla kwa nkeji nke ikuku n'èzí na-ebu 1.2 kW maka kelvin ọ bụla nke ọdịiche n'etiti n'ime na n'èzí.

H_ve = ρc·(Q_oa + Q_inf), ρc = 1200 J/(m³K)[1]

Ụdị nkasi obi Fanger na-edozi okpomọkụ mmadụ na-emepụta megide nke ọ na-efu site na convection, radieshon, ọsụsọ na ume. PMV 0 bụ nkịtị; ±0.5 bụ ụdị nkasi obi nkịtị, ebe ihe dị ka 10 % ka na-enweghị afọ ojuju.

PMV = (0.303·e^(−0.036M) + 0.028)·[(M − W) − heat losses(θa, θ_r, v, p_a, I_cl)], θ_r ≈ θs; PPD = 100 − 95·exp(−0.03353·PMV⁴ − 0.2179·PMV²)[3][4]

Usoro ọsọ mgbanwe ikuku maka ọfịs: otu akụkụ maka onye ọ bụla, otu akụkụ maka mpaghara ala. Njikwa dabere na mkpa na-eso ndị mmadụ nọ n'ezie.

V_bz = R_p·N + R_a·A = 2.5 L/s·N + 0.3 L/s·m²·A; fixed = V_bz(design 250 people) = 2,125 L/s; DCV = V_bz(N present); purge = 100 % outdoor air (6 m³/s, the AHU limit)[5]

CO₂ n'ụlọ jikọtara nke ọma: ndị bi n'ime na-agbakwunye ya, ikuku n'èzí na-eme ka ọ gbazee. Ọkwa ya na-aga n'ihe bụ C_out + N·G/Q na oge-ntụpụ V/Q — ihe dị ka otu awa na ọkara n'ọsọ nhazi.

V·dC/dt = Q(C_out − C) + N·G, G = 0.0048 L/s; C_ss = C_out + N·G/Q, τ = V/Q[6][5][7]

Okpomọkụ dị n'ime: ndị mmadụ, ìhè na ngwá ọfịs; anyanwụ na-agafe windo na-eru elu n'isi ehihie.

Φ_int = 75 W·N + lights 7 W/m² + plugs 10 W/m²·(0.25 + 0.75·N/250); Φ_sol = 100 kW·sin(π(h − 6)/13)·cloud[8]Echiche: nha ụlọ, ihe mkpuchi ya, ikike sistemụ, njupụta okpomọkụ dị n'ime, akụkụ Carnot, ike fan, usoro oge na ihu igwe bụ ụkpụrụ ngosi maka ọfịs nkịtị; mmekọrịta nguzozi okpomọkụ, nkasi obi, mgbanwe ikuku na CO₂ bụ ndị e bipụtara.

Chiller na-arụ ọrụ ike karịa ka ọ na-ekpo ọkụ n'èzí, heat pump karịa ka ọ na-ajụ — a na-eme ha abụọ n'ụdị otu akụkụ kwụsiri ike nke ọrụ kacha mma (Carnot).

COP_cool = 0.45·T_e/(T_c − T_e), T_e = 5 °C, T_c = θo + 12 K; COP_heat = 0.45·T_c/(T_c − T_e), T_c = 45 °C, T_e = θo − 8 K[9]Echiche: nha ụlọ, ihe mkpuchi ya, ikike sistemụ, njupụta okpomọkụ dị n'ime, akụkụ Carnot, ike fan, usoro oge na ihu igwe bụ ụkpụrụ ngosi maka ọfịs nkịtị; mmekọrịta nguzozi okpomọkụ, nkasi obi, mgbanwe ikuku na CO₂ bụ ndị e bipụtara.

Mita na-edekọ ike nkezi nke nkeji 15 ọ bụla; ụgwọ demand na-akwụ nke kachasị elu, ya mere otu ọkara-awa ọjọọ na-ekpebi ụgwọ ahụ.

P = Q_cool/COP_cool + Q_heat/COP_heat + fans (6 kW + 1.5 kW per m³/s outdoor air) + lights + plugs; billing demand = max over 15-min intervals of P[11]Echiche: nha ụlọ, ihe mkpuchi ya, ikike sistemụ, njupụta okpomọkụ dị n'ime, akụkụ Carnot, ike fan, usoro oge na ihu igwe bụ ụkpụrụ ngosi maka ọfịs nkịtị; mmekọrịta nguzozi okpomọkụ, nkasi obi, mgbanwe ikuku na CO₂ bụ ndị e bipụtara.

Tupu-ijụụ na-echekwa 'jụụ' na nkume n'abalị, mgbe chiller na-arụ ọrụ nke ọma ma ịchọrọ dị ala; n'ehihie, ọkpụkpụ ụlọ jụrụ na-ewere okpomọkụ nke sistemụ ga-ewepụ ma ọ bụghị ya.

cool the mass before the peak (θm ↓), then raise the setpoint: H_ms(θs − θm) absorbs part of the afternoon gain instead of the plant[10]

Mmalite kacha mma: ka ọkpụkpụ ụlọ na ihu igwe na-adị jụụ, ka nlọghachi site na setback na-adị ogologo, ya mere sistemụ ga-amalite n'oge karịa.

recovery time after setback grows with (θ_set − θm) and with colder weather; plant start = occupancy − recovery time[12][1]

Ihe ndị ọzọ na-agbanweghị nke ụdị ahụ na-eji.

5,000 m² office, 3 m storeys · windows 800 m² at U 1.8 (H_w 1,440 W/K), opaque envelope 1,000 W/K, infiltration 0.1 ACH · cooling capacity 350 kW, heat pump 300 kW (thermal) · unoccupied limits 15/30 °C · occupancy 07:30–18:30, attendance ~ N(85 %, 5 %) · outdoor temperature cosine + N(0, 0.8 K) hourly · RH 50 %, 0.1 m/s, 1.2 metEchiche: nha ụlọ, ihe mkpuchi ya, ikike sistemụ, njupụta okpomọkụ dị n'ime, akụkụ Carnot, ike fan, usoro oge na ihu igwe bụ ụkpụrụ ngosi maka ọfịs nkịtị; mmekọrịta nguzozi okpomọkụ, nkasi obi, mgbanwe ikuku na CO₂ bụ ndị e bipụtara.

Enweghị usoro: ihe mmepụta mulberry32 nwere mkpụrụ; nkesa ejiri — uniform, exponential (inverse CDF), normal (Box–Muller), Poisson (Knuth). A na-egosi mkpụrụ ma nwee ike ikekọrịta ya.

Isi mmalite

1. ISO 13790:2008 — Energy performance of buildings — Calculation of energy use for space heating and cooling (simple hourly method, 5R1C network, Annex C; Table 12 mass classes) — International Organization for Standardization, 2008
2. Modelica Buildings Library — Buildings.ThermalZones.ISO13790 (Zone5R1C: h_is = 3.45, h_ms = 9.1 W/m²K, gain split; mass classes, e.g. Data.Heavy: 260 000 J/(K·m²), mass area factor 3.0) — Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
3. ISO 7730:2005 — Ergonomics of the thermal environment — Analytical determination and interpretation of thermal comfort using calculation of the PMV and PPD indices (Annex D program, Table D.1 check values) — International Organization for Standardization, 2005
4. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 — Thermal Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy (PMV −0.5…+0.5 comfort zone, PPD < 10 %) — ASHRAE, 2020
5. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1 — Ventilation and Acceptable Indoor Air Quality (Table 6-1, office space: R_p = 5 cfm (2.5 L/s) per person, R_a = 0.06 cfm/ft² (0.3 L/s·m²), 5 people / 1000 ft²; demand-controlled ventilation) — ASHRAE, 2022
6. A. Persily, L. de Jonge — Carbon dioxide generation rates for building occupants (office occupants ≈ 0.0048 L/s per person; steady-state ΔC = G/Q) — Indoor Air 27(5):868–879, 2017
7. 실내공기질 관리법 시행규칙 별표 2 — 실내공기질 유지기준 (이산화탄소 1,000 ppm 이하) — 대한민국 환경부 (국가법령정보센터)
8. ASHRAE Handbook — Fundamentals, Chapter 18 Nonresidential Cooling and Heating Load Calculations (Table 1: moderately active office work, sensible ≈ 75 W per person) — ASHRAE, 2021
9. Y. A. Çengel, M. A. Boles — Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach (reversed Carnot cycle: COP_R = T_L/(T_H − T_L), COP_HP = T_H/(T_H − T_L)) — McGraw-Hill, 9th ed., 2019
10. J. E. Braun — Load Control Using Building Thermal Mass (pre-cooling and setpoint adjustment to shift and reduce peak cooling demand) — ASME Journal of Solar Energy Engineering 125(3):292–301, 2003
11. J. McLaren, S. Mullendore — Identifying Potential Markets for Behind-the-Meter Battery Energy Storage: A Survey of U.S. Demand Charges (demand charge on the highest metered interval demand, kW) — NREL / Clean Energy Group, NREL/BR-6A20-68963, 2017
12. J. E. Seem, P. R. Armstrong, C. E. Hancock — Algorithms for predicting recovery time from night setback (optimal start) — ASHRAE Transactions 95(2), 1989